Violence has been an integral part of our history which is evidence that we are not the wholly moral creatures everyone likes to believe. We have fought deadly battles for land, ideology, pride, retribution, oppression, resources, and glory. It’s part of our history, part of our present and there’s no reason to think it won’t be part of our future. We memorialize some events, fictionalize others, turn men and women into heroes and pass these stories on through plays, operas, books, television and video games. We continue to question whether it is appropriate to expose ourselves to the nature of violence in any form, though more recently in video games. Plato is said to have cautioned, “… plays and poetry might have deleterious effects on youth…” While his mentor Socrates is said to have been suspicious of the alphabets effects on people (Ferguson 69).
The Blame Game
Violent video games have quickly become the scapegoat of the 21st century for crime among youth and general decline in social moral values in westernized countries. As sensationalist media, politicians, social groups, and extremists have made their voices heard one message has rung clear; Violent Video games cause violent people. This false message has brought back the recurring historic contention between moral values and creative media. While there are on-going legal, scientific, and moral battles, the evidence of experience, history and fact show that violent video games do not cause violent behavior in people. Violence has been attributed to a number of environmental and psychological factors which one can use to predict the likely-hood that a person might commit an act of violence, with no sense of certainty. Video games are extremely low on that list of factors. To date, many studies have concluded that there is no recipe that will provide anyone with the ability to abate all acts of violence; there are simply too many variables and unique situations that can emerge at any given time. While we would all like to end violence and live in a world of peace and harmony it has become clear that the focus on violent video games has become a distraction in that effort.
Definition of a Video Game
Before continuing, it’s important to define the concept of a video game. While most people believe that video games are simply toys meant for children, the reality is that the average video game consumer is 35 years old while the average purchaser is 40 years old and 65% of all American households play video games (Rabin 46). Obviously video games are not intended primarily for children but for adults. As a game developer I can testify to the fact that we don’t simply consider video games toys but more succinctly interactive art usually with the intention of conveying a story and eliciting emotional responses while providing an enjoyable competitive experience. In his book, Homo Ludens, Johan Huizinga defines game play as,”… a voluntary activity or occupation executed within certain fixed limits of time and place, according to the rules freely accepted but absolutely binding, having its aim in itself and accompanied by a feeling of tension, joy, and the consciousness that is ‘different’ from ‘ordinary life’.” A video game takes that definition one step further and places a player in a visual representation of the game world often with instant input and feedback which require a high degree of attention. A good video game captures the mind and places the player in a state of constant challenge and learning which is ultimately fun for the player. In the words of Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, the author of Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience, “… being completely involved in an activity for its own sake. The ego falls away. Time flies. Every action, movement, and thought follows inevitably from the previous one, like playing jazz. Your whole being is involved, and you’re using your skills to the utmost.” Games allow us to challenge our minds in ways never before possible, even redirect our unhealthy aggression to virtual worlds and virtual characters in forms that maybe emotionally and psychologically healthy.
The History Of Violent Games
The story of violent video games starts in 1976 during the infancy of the gaming industry. The game Death Race was released that year whose premise was to run over gremlins with a player controlled car. There was confusion over whether the gremlins were in fact pedestrians as the graphics were extremely simplistic. After enough public outcries the developer Exidy had to pull the game from the market (doteaters). The next notable game was Mortal Kombat which was released in 1992 and featured the most realistic gore ever seen in gaming. The objective was to fight an opponent to the death often ending with a finishing move that would include various acts of ultra-violence. The controversy surrounding this game sparked the creation of the ESRB (Entertainment Software Ratings Board) before congressional hearings were set to commence on whether the gaming industry needed regulation (Gonzalez). The subsequent hearings displayed a game industry divided, in which developers argued over whose products contained more violent content. However the hearing concluded that the ESRB was a valid solution to the problem of regulation. In 1999 video game violence was again thrust to the front page when two high school students walked into their school fully armed on April 20th and killed 12 classmates, teachers and then themselves. The students played the popular game Doom which was quickly attributed as inspiration for their terrible acts causing a series of public outcries along with a renewed interest in the psychological effects of violent video games on our youth. The late 90’s saw a slew of games similar to Doom released with higher quality graphics and even more controversial content such as Postal, Quake, Resident Evil and Carmaggedon in which violence was more prominent and visceral. None, however, have had the same impact as one of the all time best selling games, Grand Theft Auto (GTA). The GTA series, of which there are now 4 sequels, has included a game play smorgasbord of inhumane, illegal and violent activity. From soliciting prostitution to attacking civilians to killing police the game has very few limits when it comes to morals. Today Grand Theft Auto is at the top of the controversy in violent games, having been banned in many countries, though eventually permitted in most after developers censored their own content; it continually pushes the boundaries of what is socially acceptable in games.
Big Brother vs. Game Developers
The columbine incident inspired a legal battle in 1999 in which game developers among others were blamed for influencing the gunmen, though all suits were eventually dismissed (Rabin 49). Judge Babcock, the judge presiding over the case wrote, “Setting aside any personal distaste, as I must, it is manifest that there is social utility in expressive and imaginative forms of entertainment, even if they contain violence.” (Associated Press) A year later, in 2000, Missouri issued a county ordinance regulating the display and sale of violent video games. After an appeal the ordinance was overturned and Missouri was not allowed to regulate violent video games under the First Amendment (Marlin). Another ordinance in the city of Indianapolis was overturned that same year by Judge Posner who states that exposure to imaginary violence, regardless of media can play an important role in a child’s life. He continues by stating that violence is a cornerstone of human interest, explaining, “To shield children right up to the age of 18 from exposure to violent descriptions and images would not only be quixotic, but deforming; it would leave them unequipped to cope with the world as we know it.”(Schiesel) Eventually California and other states decide to pass laws regulating the sale and display of violent video games to minors. So far each case has been overturned because of the First Amendment; however in the fall of 2010 the Supreme Court has decided to rule over the case, which may finally decide the fate of regulation on violent video games.
Can Violent Games be Good?
Many people might think that the simple act of reliving a violent event through story, visual or not, might inspire one to commit a violent act. Mothers Against Videogame Addiction (MAVAV) and Violence state that, “Video games have led to an epidemic of youth violence all across the world.” They cite that 1 in every 9 gamers are already addicted and that the video games are socially isolating and desensitizing. MAVAV go onto to say that social games that have grouping mechanisms like guilds or clans are very similar to gangs implying a link between the two.
If this were true violence would be so rampant, because of the proliferation of media that civilization as we know it would be far different, if even possible, than it is today. History class would be among the FBI’s top ten list of causes of violence. The Bible, one of the most powerful books in human history would have to be condemned along with the Constitution and movies like Saving Private Ryan for their depiction and proscription of violence. The overwhelming assumption is that books and media depictions are no more a threat to society than the spoken word which is why media has been protected under the First Amendment. The truth is that violent video games provide people with an outlet and escapism which allow people to explore emotions and situations they could never do in real life because of moral and legal constraints.
Daniel Lipscombe, a freelance video game journalist, when discussing why he plays video games writes, “There’s often a resolution at the end that leaves you with the contentment of achieving something, and in a world full of so many problems this can only be a positive thing.” (Lipscombe, par. 7) He explains that when his daughter, three years of age, passed he found an escape and the ability to explore his feelings in an environment which was not damaging to those around him. Video games provided him with the ability to deal with his own issues on his own terms without external judgment or condemnation. It is this ability which engages many gamers to continue exploring mature content that’s touching more people in ways that have previously been impossible through traditional media. In my opinion, it is vital for people to explore their emotions, good and bad, in controlled settings which will help prepare them for the moments when reality forces them into the experiences they cannot control.
One of the most common arguments against violent video games is that they teach people how to commit violent acts through repetition and reward. In an interview with Play.tm Thompson says, “… video games are the most dangerous of all violent media, because they are interactive. You actually enter into doing the violence.” (play.tm) Thompson and others claim that video games are extremely effective teaching tools through the use of highly engaging graphics and repetitive actions, people learn very quickly. Thompson further states that studies show that children exhibit heightened aggression and behavioral issues after gaming sessions. He then correlates these games, or training exercises as tools that children and teens use to prepare for premeditated acts of violence and that every school massacre has been committed by a gamer. Most people against violence in video games agree that the problem primarily affects children.
However studies have shown that most people do not learn as a direct result of media exposure relating to their internal goals, motivations and core personality (Ferguson 76). In a study by Cheryl Olson in which 1,254 middle school children were surveyed, Olsen found that youths who play violent video games are not using them as a platform to rehearse real life violence but that they may in fact be exploring their own emotions. When discussing Grand Theft Auto and the moral lessons one can learn from a violent video game, one boy said, “If you look at it for fun, it really doesn’t teach you anything. But if you look at it as [Sonny’s] life story, as the guy’s point of view, you go through a lot of changes. And you have to kill people to get where you’re at. And the end of the game, you stop killing people because you don’t want to be in that situation no more. Because once you’re in a gang, you really can’t get out.” (Olsen 185) Moreover Olsen says that mastering the physical and emotional sensations those games illicit has been an important and even life saving skill. As mentioned previously Olsen infers that video games offer a safe controlled environment where a child can explore and come to terms with negative feelings in order prepare for reality. That historically fables, movies, and stories have been the methods in which children explored their emotions while today its more commonly video games. Olsen concludes that video games, especially violent ones, give us a platform that is widely accepted to begin to develop new forms of education. Olsen also concludes that parents should ensure their children are playing in moderation and recommends becoming active in their children’s activities by playing with them.
According to Christopher Ferguson, assistant professor at Texas A&M who specializes on violent behavior, violent games have many potential upsides. He cites three main upsides in his research report, which are visuospatial cognition, social Involvement, and education. Ferguson describes the first benefit, ”Visuospation cognition involves the intellectual and cognitive processes related to attending, scanning, selecting, processing and mentally altering visual information.” Ferguson claims that these tasks are related to intelligence tests and that related studies have found correlations between violent games and improvements in these areas, whereas non-violent games have weaker correlations. As for social involvement, Ferguson states that with advent of the internet games have become more networked which has allowed for complex social interactions. Finally concerning education, Fergusons findings suggest that meaningful information can be conveyed through violent games in part because of their popularity, which aligns with Olsen’s study.
The Myths of Video Game Violence
While we all like to think that the news is fair and balanced, there are certain organizations that tend to sensationalize certain topics to induce a public panic. The motives behind these actions may be related to ratings, social agendas, corporate jockeying, or the ability to control the public. In the case of video game violence many stories have been quickly related to video games without a complete investigation. This was the case on April 16, 2007 when a Virginia Tech student walked on campus fully armed and began to assassinate fellow classmates and teachers, killing 32 people and wounding many others. The following day Jack Thompson, now disbarred attorney and anti-violent video game activist, declared on Fox News that the assailant was an avid player of violent video games (Ferguson 70). The same day Dr. Phil told Larry King that video games were to blame for our violent youth (GamePolitics). A Virginia Tech Review Panel revealed that the assailant had little exposure to games. As with the Columbine massacre, the media easily pointed to video games as the culprit of these acts, it was later determined that there were many other factors that were far more influential on the assailants. In fact an FBI study has pointed to psychological issues and concluded little connection between the games and violent acts (Cullen).
Many people have been led to believe that our youth are becoming more violent due to the content they consume in violent video games. The truth however is that since 1993 youth violence has been decreasing while video games sales have quadrupled (Ferguson 70). While this is not conclusive evidence, it does imply a connection between video games and reduced violence. The consumption of violent video games over that period should see a rise in violent crime as more violent games have been sold, however the opposite is true.
Conclusion
I began my experience with video games when I was eight years old, over 24 years ago, with a commodore 64 and a casset copy of ikari warriors, a game where the player controls a Rambo-like character through fields reminiscent of Vietnam shooting everything that moves. I can remember that as my favorite game through my early years. I explored console games with the Nintendo in the form of wrestling, puzzle and hunting games and PC games like DOOM and quake. Eventually I even played a couple versions of Grand Theft Auto all the way through and enjoyed each new release. I remember at times I would occasionally listen to violent heavy metal in the form of Metallica while playing a violent game or two. Through all this experience, I managed to make it through my entire life, along with many of my friends who are fellow gamers, without ever committing or promoting an act of violence. Conversely, I know people who have committed plenty of violent acts and never touched a video game.
Violent video games are not suitable for all people and certainly moderation of any activity is extremely important, however violent video games are not the cause of violence. If people are looking for reasons to explain violent activity, I suggest looking at human nature and the myriad of variables that occur in each individual’s lives.
Citations
Mavav.org. MAVAV | Mothers Against Video Game Addition and Violence. Home page. May 2007. Web. 20 July 2010.
The Blame Game
Violent video games have quickly become the scapegoat of the 21st century for crime among youth and general decline in social moral values in westernized countries. As sensationalist media, politicians, social groups, and extremists have made their voices heard one message has rung clear; Violent Video games cause violent people. This false message has brought back the recurring historic contention between moral values and creative media. While there are on-going legal, scientific, and moral battles, the evidence of experience, history and fact show that violent video games do not cause violent behavior in people. Violence has been attributed to a number of environmental and psychological factors which one can use to predict the likely-hood that a person might commit an act of violence, with no sense of certainty. Video games are extremely low on that list of factors. To date, many studies have concluded that there is no recipe that will provide anyone with the ability to abate all acts of violence; there are simply too many variables and unique situations that can emerge at any given time. While we would all like to end violence and live in a world of peace and harmony it has become clear that the focus on violent video games has become a distraction in that effort.
Definition of a Video Game
Before continuing, it’s important to define the concept of a video game. While most people believe that video games are simply toys meant for children, the reality is that the average video game consumer is 35 years old while the average purchaser is 40 years old and 65% of all American households play video games (Rabin 46). Obviously video games are not intended primarily for children but for adults. As a game developer I can testify to the fact that we don’t simply consider video games toys but more succinctly interactive art usually with the intention of conveying a story and eliciting emotional responses while providing an enjoyable competitive experience. In his book, Homo Ludens, Johan Huizinga defines game play as,”… a voluntary activity or occupation executed within certain fixed limits of time and place, according to the rules freely accepted but absolutely binding, having its aim in itself and accompanied by a feeling of tension, joy, and the consciousness that is ‘different’ from ‘ordinary life’.” A video game takes that definition one step further and places a player in a visual representation of the game world often with instant input and feedback which require a high degree of attention. A good video game captures the mind and places the player in a state of constant challenge and learning which is ultimately fun for the player. In the words of Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, the author of Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience, “… being completely involved in an activity for its own sake. The ego falls away. Time flies. Every action, movement, and thought follows inevitably from the previous one, like playing jazz. Your whole being is involved, and you’re using your skills to the utmost.” Games allow us to challenge our minds in ways never before possible, even redirect our unhealthy aggression to virtual worlds and virtual characters in forms that maybe emotionally and psychologically healthy.
The History Of Violent Games
The story of violent video games starts in 1976 during the infancy of the gaming industry. The game Death Race was released that year whose premise was to run over gremlins with a player controlled car. There was confusion over whether the gremlins were in fact pedestrians as the graphics were extremely simplistic. After enough public outcries the developer Exidy had to pull the game from the market (doteaters). The next notable game was Mortal Kombat which was released in 1992 and featured the most realistic gore ever seen in gaming. The objective was to fight an opponent to the death often ending with a finishing move that would include various acts of ultra-violence. The controversy surrounding this game sparked the creation of the ESRB (Entertainment Software Ratings Board) before congressional hearings were set to commence on whether the gaming industry needed regulation (Gonzalez). The subsequent hearings displayed a game industry divided, in which developers argued over whose products contained more violent content. However the hearing concluded that the ESRB was a valid solution to the problem of regulation. In 1999 video game violence was again thrust to the front page when two high school students walked into their school fully armed on April 20th and killed 12 classmates, teachers and then themselves. The students played the popular game Doom which was quickly attributed as inspiration for their terrible acts causing a series of public outcries along with a renewed interest in the psychological effects of violent video games on our youth. The late 90’s saw a slew of games similar to Doom released with higher quality graphics and even more controversial content such as Postal, Quake, Resident Evil and Carmaggedon in which violence was more prominent and visceral. None, however, have had the same impact as one of the all time best selling games, Grand Theft Auto (GTA). The GTA series, of which there are now 4 sequels, has included a game play smorgasbord of inhumane, illegal and violent activity. From soliciting prostitution to attacking civilians to killing police the game has very few limits when it comes to morals. Today Grand Theft Auto is at the top of the controversy in violent games, having been banned in many countries, though eventually permitted in most after developers censored their own content; it continually pushes the boundaries of what is socially acceptable in games.
Big Brother vs. Game Developers
The columbine incident inspired a legal battle in 1999 in which game developers among others were blamed for influencing the gunmen, though all suits were eventually dismissed (Rabin 49). Judge Babcock, the judge presiding over the case wrote, “Setting aside any personal distaste, as I must, it is manifest that there is social utility in expressive and imaginative forms of entertainment, even if they contain violence.” (Associated Press) A year later, in 2000, Missouri issued a county ordinance regulating the display and sale of violent video games. After an appeal the ordinance was overturned and Missouri was not allowed to regulate violent video games under the First Amendment (Marlin). Another ordinance in the city of Indianapolis was overturned that same year by Judge Posner who states that exposure to imaginary violence, regardless of media can play an important role in a child’s life. He continues by stating that violence is a cornerstone of human interest, explaining, “To shield children right up to the age of 18 from exposure to violent descriptions and images would not only be quixotic, but deforming; it would leave them unequipped to cope with the world as we know it.”(Schiesel) Eventually California and other states decide to pass laws regulating the sale and display of violent video games to minors. So far each case has been overturned because of the First Amendment; however in the fall of 2010 the Supreme Court has decided to rule over the case, which may finally decide the fate of regulation on violent video games.
Can Violent Games be Good?
Many people might think that the simple act of reliving a violent event through story, visual or not, might inspire one to commit a violent act. Mothers Against Videogame Addiction (MAVAV) and Violence state that, “Video games have led to an epidemic of youth violence all across the world.” They cite that 1 in every 9 gamers are already addicted and that the video games are socially isolating and desensitizing. MAVAV go onto to say that social games that have grouping mechanisms like guilds or clans are very similar to gangs implying a link between the two.
If this were true violence would be so rampant, because of the proliferation of media that civilization as we know it would be far different, if even possible, than it is today. History class would be among the FBI’s top ten list of causes of violence. The Bible, one of the most powerful books in human history would have to be condemned along with the Constitution and movies like Saving Private Ryan for their depiction and proscription of violence. The overwhelming assumption is that books and media depictions are no more a threat to society than the spoken word which is why media has been protected under the First Amendment. The truth is that violent video games provide people with an outlet and escapism which allow people to explore emotions and situations they could never do in real life because of moral and legal constraints.
Daniel Lipscombe, a freelance video game journalist, when discussing why he plays video games writes, “There’s often a resolution at the end that leaves you with the contentment of achieving something, and in a world full of so many problems this can only be a positive thing.” (Lipscombe, par. 7) He explains that when his daughter, three years of age, passed he found an escape and the ability to explore his feelings in an environment which was not damaging to those around him. Video games provided him with the ability to deal with his own issues on his own terms without external judgment or condemnation. It is this ability which engages many gamers to continue exploring mature content that’s touching more people in ways that have previously been impossible through traditional media. In my opinion, it is vital for people to explore their emotions, good and bad, in controlled settings which will help prepare them for the moments when reality forces them into the experiences they cannot control.
One of the most common arguments against violent video games is that they teach people how to commit violent acts through repetition and reward. In an interview with Play.tm Thompson says, “… video games are the most dangerous of all violent media, because they are interactive. You actually enter into doing the violence.” (play.tm) Thompson and others claim that video games are extremely effective teaching tools through the use of highly engaging graphics and repetitive actions, people learn very quickly. Thompson further states that studies show that children exhibit heightened aggression and behavioral issues after gaming sessions. He then correlates these games, or training exercises as tools that children and teens use to prepare for premeditated acts of violence and that every school massacre has been committed by a gamer. Most people against violence in video games agree that the problem primarily affects children.
However studies have shown that most people do not learn as a direct result of media exposure relating to their internal goals, motivations and core personality (Ferguson 76). In a study by Cheryl Olson in which 1,254 middle school children were surveyed, Olsen found that youths who play violent video games are not using them as a platform to rehearse real life violence but that they may in fact be exploring their own emotions. When discussing Grand Theft Auto and the moral lessons one can learn from a violent video game, one boy said, “If you look at it for fun, it really doesn’t teach you anything. But if you look at it as [Sonny’s] life story, as the guy’s point of view, you go through a lot of changes. And you have to kill people to get where you’re at. And the end of the game, you stop killing people because you don’t want to be in that situation no more. Because once you’re in a gang, you really can’t get out.” (Olsen 185) Moreover Olsen says that mastering the physical and emotional sensations those games illicit has been an important and even life saving skill. As mentioned previously Olsen infers that video games offer a safe controlled environment where a child can explore and come to terms with negative feelings in order prepare for reality. That historically fables, movies, and stories have been the methods in which children explored their emotions while today its more commonly video games. Olsen concludes that video games, especially violent ones, give us a platform that is widely accepted to begin to develop new forms of education. Olsen also concludes that parents should ensure their children are playing in moderation and recommends becoming active in their children’s activities by playing with them.
According to Christopher Ferguson, assistant professor at Texas A&M who specializes on violent behavior, violent games have many potential upsides. He cites three main upsides in his research report, which are visuospatial cognition, social Involvement, and education. Ferguson describes the first benefit, ”Visuospation cognition involves the intellectual and cognitive processes related to attending, scanning, selecting, processing and mentally altering visual information.” Ferguson claims that these tasks are related to intelligence tests and that related studies have found correlations between violent games and improvements in these areas, whereas non-violent games have weaker correlations. As for social involvement, Ferguson states that with advent of the internet games have become more networked which has allowed for complex social interactions. Finally concerning education, Fergusons findings suggest that meaningful information can be conveyed through violent games in part because of their popularity, which aligns with Olsen’s study.
The Myths of Video Game Violence
While we all like to think that the news is fair and balanced, there are certain organizations that tend to sensationalize certain topics to induce a public panic. The motives behind these actions may be related to ratings, social agendas, corporate jockeying, or the ability to control the public. In the case of video game violence many stories have been quickly related to video games without a complete investigation. This was the case on April 16, 2007 when a Virginia Tech student walked on campus fully armed and began to assassinate fellow classmates and teachers, killing 32 people and wounding many others. The following day Jack Thompson, now disbarred attorney and anti-violent video game activist, declared on Fox News that the assailant was an avid player of violent video games (Ferguson 70). The same day Dr. Phil told Larry King that video games were to blame for our violent youth (GamePolitics). A Virginia Tech Review Panel revealed that the assailant had little exposure to games. As with the Columbine massacre, the media easily pointed to video games as the culprit of these acts, it was later determined that there were many other factors that were far more influential on the assailants. In fact an FBI study has pointed to psychological issues and concluded little connection between the games and violent acts (Cullen).
Many people have been led to believe that our youth are becoming more violent due to the content they consume in violent video games. The truth however is that since 1993 youth violence has been decreasing while video games sales have quadrupled (Ferguson 70). While this is not conclusive evidence, it does imply a connection between video games and reduced violence. The consumption of violent video games over that period should see a rise in violent crime as more violent games have been sold, however the opposite is true.
Conclusion
I began my experience with video games when I was eight years old, over 24 years ago, with a commodore 64 and a casset copy of ikari warriors, a game where the player controls a Rambo-like character through fields reminiscent of Vietnam shooting everything that moves. I can remember that as my favorite game through my early years. I explored console games with the Nintendo in the form of wrestling, puzzle and hunting games and PC games like DOOM and quake. Eventually I even played a couple versions of Grand Theft Auto all the way through and enjoyed each new release. I remember at times I would occasionally listen to violent heavy metal in the form of Metallica while playing a violent game or two. Through all this experience, I managed to make it through my entire life, along with many of my friends who are fellow gamers, without ever committing or promoting an act of violence. Conversely, I know people who have committed plenty of violent acts and never touched a video game.
Violent video games are not suitable for all people and certainly moderation of any activity is extremely important, however violent video games are not the cause of violence. If people are looking for reasons to explain violent activity, I suggest looking at human nature and the myriad of variables that occur in each individual’s lives.
Citations
Mavav.org. MAVAV | Mothers Against Video Game Addition and Violence. Home page. May 2007. Web. 20 July 2010.
play.tm team. Interview Jack Thompson The firebrand lawyer answers our questions. Play.tm. 4 Jan 2007. Web. July 23 2010.
Daniel Lipscombe. “Why I play games: My Escapism”. Resolution-magazine.co.uk. 23 July 2009. Web. 20 July 2010.
Olson, Cheryl K., Children’s Motivations for Video Game Play in the Context of Normal Development. Review of General Psychology 2010: 180 – 187. Web. 22 July 2010
Ferguson, Christopher J., Blazing Angels or Resident Evil? Can Violent Games Be a Force for Good?. Review of General Psychology 2010: 68 – 82. Web. 21 July 2010.
Schiesel, Seth., Courts Block Laws on Video Game Violence. NYTimes Television. 21 August 2007. Web. 1 August 2010.
Csikszentmihalyi , Mihaly. Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience. New York: Harper, 1991. Print.
The Dot Eaters. Video Game History 101, 2007. Web. 6 August 2010.
Rabin, Steve. Introduction to Game Development. Second Edition. Boston: Charles River Media, 2010. Print.
Huizinga, Johan. Homo Ludens. London: First Beacon, 1955. Print.
Marlin, Brooks. Interactive Digital Software Association v. St. Louis County, Missouri. Everything2. 2 July 2002. Web. 7 August 2010.
Associated Press. Columbine lawsuit against makers of video games, movies thrown out. Firstamendmentcenter.org. 5 March 2002. Web. 7 August 2010.
GamePolitics. Dr. Phil Blames Video Games for Virginia Tech Massacre. Gamepolitics.com. 17 April 2007. Web. 8 August 2010.
Cullen, David. The Depressive and the Psychopath. Slate.com. 20 April 2004. Web. 8 August 2010.
Gonzalez, Lauren. A History of Video Game Controversy. Gamespot.com. 2010. Web. 7 August 2010.
